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Abstract
This section of the research drive presents a synthesis of the consulted literature on the subjects of the relationship between Type C personality and the cancer risk factor. The presentation comes in the background of a protracted focus on the Type A and Type B person types researches while contemporary researches have presented crucial findings on the dynamics of Type C personality in relation to risk of cancer. This has laid critical implications and imperatives for medical and health practitioners who are subsequently prompted by empirical research findings to consider feasible ways of dealing with persons diagnosed with cancer in relation to their personality types. The paper thus entails an outline of the merits of Cognitive Behavioral therapy and Ego-Oriented intervention theories for special groups of people such as cancer victims.
Introduction
Contemporary researches in human anatomy and have presented emergent nuances and insights on the close relations between personality a type and the cancer risk factor. Many researches in the nursing and health scientific bodies have been focused almost exclusively on the Type A and B personalities. Recent research endeavors have unearthed the dynamics of Type C (wherein C stands for Cancer) personality with the high-risk factor. The paper seeks to zero in on the actual scientific relationship between the features o the personality classified as C and the aspects of gene and hormonal activity that leads to the build-up of cancer cells. The key conceptual framework will be characterised by the established scientific realities that type C personalities are more given to negative and detrimental negative emotions that lead to suppression and enervation of the functionalities of the immune system which is designed to fight and eliminate the generation and proliferation of cancer cells.
Clinical Question
In the scientific c framework which constitutes facts on the characteristics of Type personalities, the emerging clinical question is, how are Type C personalities more vulnerable to the risk of cancer with special attention to the relationship between the characteristics of the Type C persons and the, their emotional disposition and its impact on their immune system.
Synthesis of literature
This research exercise is not being conducted in a vacuum. The research exercise fits into a broad body of knowledge that has had numerous contributions from various scholars, empirical researchers, professionals and students who have carried similar or related research exercises. Also, the scope and objectives of this research endeavor occur within related and implied theoretical and scientific frameworks which are closely tied to the focus areas of the study in the domains of Cancer and personality types in relation to cancer risk factors. As such the researcher is spurred to consider the multiple contributions relevant and related to this research endeavor. The researcher will present a literature review conducted in locating the object of this study within the broader confines of the bodies of knowledge in focus.
Specific publications have been conducted on cancer-related subjects closely linked to the scope and objectives of this research endeavor. An overview of the Cancer and Abnormal Breast Cancer Genes will be valuable in the probe of the notions of type C personality as a risk factor for cancer. The following captures current knowledge contributions made on cancer and abnormal breasts cancer genes in relation to the type C personality variable. The detailing provides a knowledge foundational background germane for charting new avenues of further researches around the scientific dynamics of cancers and their risk factor s particularly related to personality.
Contemporary bodies of abnormal genes research knowledge hold that many cases of hereditary breast cancer are relatable to two genes which are the breast cancer gene one (BRCA1) and breast cancer gene two (BRCA2). BRCA1 has been classified as a human gene. Particular mutations of the human gene have been linked with the phenomenal surge in the vulnerability to breast cancer and other forms of cancer as well. BRCA1 is also categorised as a tumor suppressor gene. Aparicio S, (2000) notes that the nature of mutations of particulate genes is closely related to the variable of personality types. The researcher has linked particulate mutations and their characteristics to the findings on personality Type C and its close relations to the risk of cancer.
Tumor suppressor genes which are also known as antioncogene are the kind of genes that safeguard a cell from a single stride on the development towards cancer. Aparicio S. (2000) outlines that, “The BRCA1 tumor suppressors keep genomic veracity as a way of averting wanton proliferation”. The mutation of the tumor suppressor gene leads to the loss or diminishing of its functionalities which in turn can plunge the cell into cancer. Crollius, H. R (2000) underscores in light of research findings around the dynamics of BRCA1 tumor suppressors, it vital for especially Type C persons to ensure that their immune system is not suppressed as this will hinder the work of the body mechanisms devised for the fighting and elimination of cancer cells.
Pennisi, E. (2003) unveils that “The initial tumor suppressor discovered was the Retinoblastoma protein (pRb) in human retinoblastoma nonetheless there is overwhelming evidence that can be used to place pRb in tumor survival dynamic classifications”. BRCA1 and BRCA2 irregularities especially in Type C persons precipitate cancer inflections and studies have also shown that such genetic deformities expose women to ovarian cancer.
From another angle, there have been contributions on the links between personality type and the cancer risk in close analysis of the dynamics of the BRCA2 human gene. BRCA2 is another human gene responsible for the mend of chromosomal harm. The gene is classified together with BRCA1 under tumor suppressor genes. This type of gene is responsible for the moderation of the cycle of cell proliferation by a way of arresting cell growth and division and ensuring that cell growth, as well as division, obtains in a controlled and regulated manner. Briggs, H. (2001) points out that “The BRCA2 gene resides on the long (q) wing of chromosome 13 at point 12.3 (13q12.3), from base pair 31,787,616 to base-pair 31,871,804”. On other hand, Briggs (Opcit) points out that, “The BRCA1 gene resides on the long (q) wing of chromosome 17 at band 21, from base pair 38,449,843 to base-pair 38,530,933”. The BRCA1 gene (IPR011364) constitutes Zinc finger, C3HC4 type (RING finger) Pfam PF00097 and BRCA1 C Terminus (BRCT) domain Pfam PF00533. Liang F et al. (2000) point that “The gene also holds nuclear localisation signal and nuclear export signal themes”. There are striking similarities in the functionalities of the BRCA1 and BRCA2 although research has shown that the structures of the two genes are widely different. The important contribution by the scholars here is the observation that the two genes function in acute optimality in environs where the immune system is not suppressed and enhances the mechanism of the identified human genes for the moderation of the cycle of cell proliferation in the means of containing cell growth and division.
Claverie, J. (2001) presents another angle to the subject of type C personality and the cancer risk factor. The scholar presents that proteins produced by the two different genes are critical for the mending of harmed DNA. BRCA2 protein can hold and regulate protein generated by the RAD51 gene to mend gaps in DNA. According to research outcomes, the breaks can be triggered by various natural and “medical radiation” as well as other environment-related factors but one of the salient causes has been identified as the case where chromosomes exchange genetic material during a particular kind of cell proliferation in the production of sperms and eggs. The mending of harmed DNA which has direct and indirect impacts on the fighting and elimination of cancer cells obtains effectively when the body’s immune system is operating optimally. This has been used to attest to high prevalence of cancer cases in Type C personalities who are more given to negative emotions like anger and distress which enervate the functionalities of the human immune system.
Notably, researchers have unveiled that the BRCA1 gene relates with the RAD51 protein and also that through the mending harmed DNA the three proteins play a critical function in contributing to the stabilisation of the human genome. Like BRCA1, BRCA2 is thought to moderate the role played by other genes. (Sue Wilkinson & Celia Kitzinger 2000) The BRCA1 Gene is also thought to be involved in key activities of embryo development. Precedent researches in Cancer and Abnormal Breast Cancer Genes have unearthed that there are particular dynamics of the BRCA2 gene that trigger a heightened risk for breast cancer. Studies conducted on the gene have led to the identification of around 450 mutations of the BRCA2 gene most of which have proven capacity to heighten the vulnerability to cancer in cases of immunity system lapses caused by factors such as negative emotions. BRCA2 are normally slot-ins or exclusions of a nominal figure of DNA base mends. Mark Petticrew et al (2002) note that DNA is the construction matter for chromosomes in genes. According to scholars, the series of mutations culminate in uncharacteristic and acute shortages of the protein product of BRCA2. Owing to this, the protein product does not play its role appropriately. Previous studies have also led to supposition that the deformed BRCA2 protein is further incapacitated in immune system malfunctions in functionalities of fixing mutations that obtain in other genes. This resultantly leads to the accumulation of mutations which in turn causes an uncontrolled cell division which is highly likely to precipitate a tumor.
Initial researches conducted on BRCA1 had indicated that that the gene co-purifies with the human RNA Polymerase II holoenzyme in HeLa units. The research outcomes meant that BRCA1 is an element of the holoenzyme. Following research outcomes nonetheless were the basis for the refutation of these findings. Hollon, T. (2000) notes that “On the contrary researches showed that the salient compound including BRCA1 in HeLa cells is a 2 megadalton composite constituting SWI/SNF”. L. Temoshok (2001) presents that mutations in the BRCA1 gene particularly in Type C individuals heighten the vulnerability to prostate cancers as well as fallopian channel cancers. The researchers have also linked precancerous lesions in the fallopian channel with BRCA1 gene mutations.
Many researches in the past have focused almost invariable so on the Type B and Type C personalities. Contemporary researches have unveiled emergent knowledge on what has been termed Type C personality where C stands for cancer. Blatny M et al (2003) notes that type persons have acute difficulty when it comes to pressing motions and these normally retain things within themselves and keep in protracted denial of what they could be feeling in reality. The scholar states that the type C person is naturally inclined to avoid and evade conflict and perceived discomfort. Johan Denollet (1998) describes such a person as “pathologically nice’. These exercise extreme forms of control over what they say and what they do. This seems to stand well when everything is flowing until they get to situations where they face normal stress. “In situations of normal stress type C personalities often collapse”.
Scientific theories advance that all persons generate cancer cells within their bodies. For the great part of the numbers of the Type A and type B personalities, white blood cells identify and annihilate the dangerous cancer cells”. The link established between type C personalities and the prevalence of cancer in type C personality categories is that stress, which is hazardous to the immune system triggers the secretion of hormones through the adrenal glands to facilitate the flight and fright reactions. In situations where an individual is constantly subjected to the detrimental forces of tension and anxiety, there is sustained transmission of cortisol as well as other adrenal hormones. Scientific enquiry has proved that these hormones suppress the immune system. (Johan Denollet 1998))The potentially grave consequences of the suppression of the immune system are hinged on the fact that when the immune system is suppressed it is incapacitated to fight and eliminate proliferating cancer cells as they are generated in the human body. When the generated cancer cells are left alone they reproduce and multiply and these lead to the development of tumors.
Peter Coleman (1997) has observed that in conventional medicine there has been discovered that persons who are diagnosed with cancer better their chances of weathering the scourge of cancer when there are integrated to support groups and get some special forms of psychiatric therapy. Cancer suffers accumulate a better prognoses after undergoing special forms of psychiatric therapy and this attests to the strong links between personality type and cancer dynamics. Notes under sustained psychiatric therapy conditions, researches has proved that a significant number of cancer victims have better chances of being cured.
Mark Petticrew et al (2002) make recommendations based on findings of the researches focusing on the links between personality Type C and the risk of cancer. The scholars present that individuals have to keep stuffing emotions and striving to eradicate the feeling that one is angry or upset. From a psychological platform, the scholars advance that there are merits to be gained when persons adopt and assert a self-less dispositions which will constitute putting oneself last and considering others first. “This helps to de-orient from one’s negative and detrimental feelings and disposition such as anger and self-pity. This is will enable the individual to palliate the negative feelings and emotions that suppress the immune system triggering the free activity of the cancer cells”(Mark Petticrew et al 2002)
Nursing implications
The findings presented on eth links between type C personality and the cancer risk factor lay an imperative for paradigmatic shift in nursing and health practice. Health practitioners aiming to tap into the merits of psychic therapy must consider the merits of approaches like cognitive behavioral therapy. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (also known as cognitive behavior therapy, CBT) is defined as a psychotherapeutic model designed to influence problematic as well as dysfunctional emotions, behaviors as well as cognition through a goal-focused systematic process. CBT has often used an inclusive term of reference to other forms of psychological therapy that derive from the theoretical framework from the behavioristic learning model as well as cognitive psychology. The term is also used to refer to all methods and approaches of transformation that are based on the theories outlined above.
Wetterling T et al (2000) note that CBT therapies have more emphasis on largely cognitive solutions while some of them are rather typically more behavioral. In the application of cognitive-oriented therapies the aim is to establish and monitor mind processes, the thoughts, as well examine and monitor the subjects’ assumptions and beliefs and behaviors associated with unhealthy negative emotions. The process entails the establishment of thoughts and behaviors which are dysfunctional and also meaningful. The salient objective in the application of these processes is to replace to transcend with identified deformities.
The theory entails the exploration of an established relationship between cognition, emotion and behavior. Tomlinson et al (1996) note that the theory is an assortment of short-term ensembles designed for psychotherapy. The theory is hailed for its cross-cultural applicability. CBT focuses on modifying Cognitive distortions. Salient aspects and focus of CBT include dichotomous thinking, mind reading, emotional responses, personalisation and perfectionism. Common CBT interventions entail the focus on the recognition of automatic thoughts, assessment and response variables. The key techniques of the model entail relaxation, breathing deeply and meditating as well as the employ of verbal self-instruction among a host of other techniques
Judith, J Beck (1995) has outlined the following as the useful treatment principles.
Cognitive treatment is based on an evolving formulation of the client’s situation and client problem in cognitive terms. The focus is on the relationship between cognitive treatment and therapeutic relationship, Problem-focus as well decisive orientation on goals.
In practice, the CBT model has been applied in scenarios demanding a turnaround or total overhaul of a subject’s problem attributes. The model application entails framing up a solution to a client’s attitudinal or any other rated problems from the way the person thinks. This is attributable to the fact that the model holds that our feelings and actions culminate from the way we think. The logic following from that premise is that anything wrong about a person’s conduct is based on their wrong way of thinking. As such the model holds that if the way of thinking of the subjects can be changed their behaviors will be turned around for the better as well. In close relation to the Type C personality therapy, the model will help replace a victim’s source of negative emotion ( negative thoughts) with positive one and this will eliminate the suppression of immune systems and thus better cancer unraveling the cancer scourge. The model sidelines the impact of external factors that constitute a clients’ environment. The application of the model downplays the effects of eternal factors like people, situations as well as events on the behavioral patterns of an individual. The merits of this approach are based on that the change of the way we think can yield a better attitudes and approach to issues even the actual problem scenario has not changed.
The ego-orientated intervention also presents considerable merits in cognisance of the implications laid by findings on Type C personality and the cancer risk factor. The theory holds that the subject scenario will improve if his/her self-esteem and ego, as well as self-concept, are bolstered. The DSM-IV (American Psychiatric Association 1994) outlines that substance abuse is a maladaptive pattern of substance use the results in clinically significant impairment or distress, as manifested by one or more of the items outlined below:
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Failure to meet major social role obligations at work, school or even in domestic precincts
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Engaging in physically dangerous activities, substance-related legal problems, and perpetual substance use regardless of its evident negative personal and interpersonal effects.
Kendall RE (1983) notes that substance because may or maybe without psychological dependence. There has been paradigmatic and perspective shift from the view of symptoms of negative emotions that catalyse the activity and proliferation of cancer cells and as negative evil conduct into more pro-activist approaches that seek to understand the dynamism of the problem and find feasible solutions to it.
Health and social work practitioners who have made use of the mental health model in close relation to the Ego-Orientated approach in dealing with the problem of depression and addiction normally regard substance abuse as part of the efforts by the Type C personality victim to implement means of self-medication. This abuse of substance has also been viewed by many practitioners as an expression of a way of handling entrenched personal predicaments. This implies that psycho-dynamically inclined medical and health practitioners shift from attacking the abuse problem directly and rather adopt a holistic and far-reaching approach in the understanding that the former will would result in the diminishing of the victim’s self-esteem and ego.
The other perspective grounded on the learning model holds negative emotions as emanating from maladaptive, conditioning and the acquisition of new behavior. The thrust reinforces the support for individuals to gain control over their predicament via bolstering the victims self-concept and hence self-esteem. The core tenet and perspective on the subject of negative emotion-related social therapy dwells on that the problem has to be placed within the broader precincts of the factors that characterise the environment of the affected individual. The practical application of the model has in several social therapy cases employed in the thrust of bolstering subjects morale and self-concepts. The external factors that can also be used to map a framework that constitutes the source of an individual‘s problems culminating can be social like poverty, unemployment, etc. In practice this perspective has also been used when problems of such nature facing individuals are contextualised within broader socio-cultural and sometimes political factors. This perspective argues for the interventions that will focus on reducing the environmental stresses that push people to negative emotion which suppress immune system and its capacity to fight the generation and proliferation o cancer cells.
Gaps in the research
There exist gaps in the research domains bordering on the dynamics of the Type C personality and the cancer risk factor. Further researches have to be conducted to illuminate the minute scientific dynamics that characterise the generation of particulate cancer cells like in cervical, breast and prostate cancers among a host of others. The establishments illuminating the bearing that personality types have on the cancer risk factor form the primary basis for more specific scientific enquires into the particulate nature of the developments of various cancer forms. This is expected to lay valuable insights in the enhancing of nursing and medical practice in dealing with cancer victims.
Conclusion
What is deducible from the qualitative evaluation for presented research data and insights point to the reality of the existence of critical and crucial relations between personality type and the cancer risk factor.
With the foregoing in mind it is evident that insights presented from research findings of the characteristics of Type C personalities and the implications these have on the immune system and the risk of cancer, that nursing practice must be modeled in tandem with considerations of the personality type implications. What can be concluded also is that the forms of cancer development, its characteristics and hence its treatment can be homogeneous. Personality Type C needs particular psychotherapeutic remedies from those offered to type A and B personalities as implied by presented research findings.
References
Aparicio, S. (2000). How to Count…Human Genes, Nature Genetics, NYK, pp 54
Briggs, H. (2000). Dispute Over Number of Human Genes, BBC News Online. Ewing, pp 64
Beth, P. G (2000). Analysis of Expressed Sequence Tags Indicates 35,000 Human Genes, Nature Genetics, pp 54
Blatny, M (2001). Type C personality (cancer personality): current view and implication for future research, Oak Books, London, UK, pp, 186
Crollius, H. R (2000). Estimate of Human Gene Number Provided by Genome-Wide Analysis Using Tetraodon nigroviridis DNA Sequence, Nature Genetics, pp 231
Denollet, J. (1998). Psychological medicine, (1998), Personality and risk of cancer in men with coronary heart disease, Millen Publishing, USA, pp 991-995
Liang, F. (2000). Gene Index Analysis of the Human Genome Estimates Approximately 120,000 Gene, Nature Genetics, pp 102
Claverie, J. (2001). Gene Number. What if There are Only 30,000 Human Genes? Science JNM, Oak House, London, pp 534
Wright, F., et al. (2001). A Draft Annotation and Overview of the Human Genome, Genome Biology 2, MYd, Sidney, pp1-18
Petticrew, M. & Ruth, B. (2002), Influence of psychological coping on survival and recurrence in people with cancer: systematic review, Mien Press, New York, pp 321-325
Review, (2003). Limited evidence exists on the effect of psychological coping style on cancer survival or recurrence. EBN online 2003; 6:88
Wilkinson, S. & Kitzinger, C. (2000), Social Science and Medicine, Thinking differently about thinking positive: a discursive approach to cancer patients 50, pp 797-811
Psychopathology among Female breast cancer patients, (2007), Journal of the Indian Academy Psychology, pp, 61-71
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