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Memory
Memory is the ability to recall information that a person has remembered. According to the Atkinson-Schiffrin model, the process of memorizing things goes through three distinct phases (Coon, et al., 2018). Incoming information is first encoded in sensory memory, which holds it for a few seconds, before being encoded into short-term or working memory, then into long-term memory (Coon, et al., 2018). Short-term memory can also be referred to as working memory, particularly when discussing using it in problem-solving (Coon, et al., 2018). One’s short-term memory capacity is limited, although no universally accepted reason explaining the reasons for it currently exists (Oberauer, et al., 2016).
The study of memory is of interest in psychology because it can be unreliable. Memories can be forgotten, suppressed or repressed, although often an external cue can be used to retrieve them (Coon, et al., 2018). Furthermore, a person can unconsciously substitute guesses, logic, or new information, for missing memories (Coon, et al., 2018). Thus, understanding the mechanisms governing memorization and forgetting is important for psychology, but also has utility in a variety of different fields. Furthermore, this knowledge can be directly used to facilitate learning. For instance, this assignment uses the fact that relating new information to personal experiences facilitates recalling it in the future in processes called elaborative processing and redintegration.
Positive and Negative Reinforcement, and Punishment
Reinforcement, both positive and negative, and punishment, are crucial elements of operant conditioning. Positive and negative reinforcement are similar in that they increase the likelihood of repeating an act that they follow (Coon, et al., 2018). However, positive reinforcement happens when an act produces a favorable outcome, while negative reinforcement happens when an act ends discomfort (Coon, et al., 2018). Punishment is the third part of operant conditioning that decreases the likelihood of repeating an act by following it with a negative consequence (Coon, et al., 2018). Operant conditioning, one of the ways of learning, is widely used in learning environments from kindergarten to university. Furthermore, it can be used in clinical settings to treat conditions such as anxiety or depression (Price, et al., 2016). Because of its wide spread, everyone has likely had some experience with operant conditioning.
One’s personal experience with positive or negative reinforcement, or punishment, can range from his or her interactions with parents, to school and college, to law. Understanding the principles behind operant conditioning, one can apply them to him or herself to develop discipline and train him or herself to act in desirable ways and accomplish difficult tasks. For example, a diet can include a “cheat day” as positive reinforcement, or suggest foregoing snacks for some time as punishment for failing to adhere to it.
Health Psychology, Stress and Coping Strategies
Concepts from psychology are closely related with one’s physical health. Health psychology is the study of promoting health and preventing illness by applying behavioral principles (Coon, et al., 2018). Since a significant portion of life-threatening conditions are caused by lifestyle choices, they can be prevented by preventing harmful habits such as smoking or reckless driving from being formed (Coon, et al., 2018). Furthermore, prolonged stress is a significant contributing factor to physical illnesses and can cause psychosomatic illnesses (Coon, et al., 2018). Although stress is inevitable, one’s response to stress can be controlled to a degree through coping or stress management strategies (Coon, et al., 2018). Therefore, understanding of stress and coping strategies are crucial in modern life, as they allow one to be more effective while helping maintain wellness.
For a personal example, I experienced significant stress in high school due to an increased workload and changes in personal relationships. I noticed that I was ill more often than usual during that period, which was likely related. Eventually, I adjusted to the environment and learned to view what I had previously seen as threats as challenges, instead. Furthermore, I made new friends, obtaining social support, and learned to maintain a balance between my activities. These changes worked as coping strategies, allowing me to reduce stress, which has, in turn, positively affected my physical health.
Motivation and Emotion
Motivation is the process that initiates, sustains, directs, and terminates actions. Generally, the initiating factor is a need, or internal deficiency, which creates a drive, which activate a response, or action, towards achieving the goal of satisfies the need (Coon, et al., 2018). Stimulus motives exist, as well, demonstrating a need for arousal (Coon, et al., 2018). Furthermore, not all needs and motives are physiological, as external factors, such as social and cultural cues, can affect one’s drives (Coon, et al., 2018). Furthermore, actions can be motivated intrinsically, without an external reward, or extrinsically, when such a reward is present (Coon, et al., 2018). Extrinsic rewards are not always beneficial, however, as it is possible to reduce intrinsic motivation or creativity by offering excessive rewards (Coon, et al., 2018). Therefore, it is important to balance extrinsic rewards if one intends to encourage others to take certain actions.
Personal example: at one point in my childhood, I developed an interest (intrinsic motivation) in music. I would spend time playing with my toy instruments and trying to play some of the songs I’d heard. When my parents noticed, they tried to encourage me by offering treats (extrinsic rewards) for playing, and later signed me up for music lessons. After that, playing started feeling less rewarding, and I eventually lost interest.
References
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Coon, D, Mitterer, J. O,. & Martini, T. S. (2018). Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind and Behavior, 15th edition. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.
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Oberauer, K., Farrell, S., Jarrold, C., & Lewandowsky, S. (2016). What limits working memory capacity? Psychological Bulletin, 142(7), 758-799. doi:10.1037/bul0000046
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Price, R. B., Greven, I. M., Siegle, G. J., Koster, E. H. W., & De Raedt, R. (2016). A novel attention training paradigm based on operant conditioning of eye gaze: Preliminary findings. Emotion, 16(1), 110-116. doi:10.1037/emo0000093
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