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Gender roles, stereotyped or not, play a critical role in marketing and advertising campaigns. In the present day, there are traditional and nontraditional gender roles that determine how male and female models are used in commercials and affect their employment in the marketing industry. This literature review studies how gender roles are portrayed in commercials, their influence on employment in the marketing industry, and the efforts being implemented to close gender gaps. The key reason for the review is to predict the future of marketing in relation to gender roles and inequality.
Peer-reviewed journal articles are the main materials utilized because of their credibility, validity, and usability. The literature is organized in a general-to-specific issue structure, where general topics about gender roles are discussed as presented in the articles, followed by the ones focusing on inequality and closing the gap. The scope of the review includes recent articles published in the last seven years. The main research areas must be around gender portrayals in advertising, consumer attitudes, and perceptions in relation to gender in commercials, and employment equality by gender in the marketing sector. No articles older than seven years were considered for this literature review to avoid using obsolete information. In addition, articles that focused on sexism were not included in this review.
Attaining equality in advertising and overcoming gender stereotypes has been a challenge for generations. The motivation of this research is to determine the state of this topic as presented in current research. The objective of reviewing the literature is to find out how prevalent gender roles and stereotypes are in the industry and if the difference is towards its end. Specific research questions include:
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Is gender stereotyping still prevalent in marketing?
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Is the gender inequality gap in advertising closing?
Gender Portrayals and Roles in Advertising
For many years, women and men have been portrayed in their traditional roles in advertising campaigns and TV commercials. The literature reviewed shows that the situation is similar across industries, including automobile, beauty, cosmetics, and manufacturing (Mensa & Bittner, 2020; Sandhu, 2019; Zawisza et al., 2018a). According to Mensa & Bittner (2020), traditional roles assigned to women portrayed them as dependent, caretakers, decorative, and sexual objects, while nontraditionally, they are depicted as authority figures and professionals. Sandhu (2019) analyzed male representation in automobiles ads and established that they were male-dominated at 64% against female-dominated ads at 12%. When he compared that with non-automobile ads, males dominated in 43% against females’ 26%. Women are also portrayed as homemakers, nurses, guardians, easy prey, goddesses, servants, losers, toys, and blondes across commercials aired on Ukrainian TV (Eisend, 2019; Kitsa & Mudra, 2019). They are limited to household and beauty roles while men are depicted resting after work. Therefore, gender stereotypes and roles are still affecting how ads are created.
Some researchers have disagreed with prior findings on gender roles and stereotyping in marketing, citing changes towards gender-neutral ads. Zayer et al. (2019) noted that fluidity is being experienced in consumer views’, society, and advertising organizations regarding gender roles. (De)legitimization forces are shifting the myths through framing, reiteration, mediated messages, and ascribing to alternative logic. More interesting are the findings of Aramendia-Muneta et al. (2019) on stereotypes by gender in digital video ads. In an analysis of 324 videos, the authors found no significant link between gender roles and aspects of the videos, including presentation mode, age, product, the role played, argument, setting, reward, and background. Nevertheless, Aramendia-Muneta et al. (2019) agree with previous findings on the central roles of the ads being assigned to men (Eisend, 2019; Kitsa & Mudra, 2019; Zayer et al., 2019). As such, gender roles continue to play a significant role in advertising, portraying men as dominant and authoritative while women as dependent and homemakers.
Consumer Perceptions and Attitudes
Consumer attitudes and perceptions determine the effectiveness of ads, influencing the practice of advertisers and marketers. Portraying women as homemakers have traditionally worked in selling household items, providing advertisers with reasons to continue using such gendered ads. Studies into consumer perceptions and attitudes indicate a change towards gender-neutral ads (Zawisza, 2018a; 2018b). Research in UAE indicates that consumers are more open to shifting advertising where women play independent and authority figure roles, such as owning automobiles and in banking (Slak Valek & Picherit-Duthler, 2020). However, Slak Valek & Picherit-Duthler (2020) noted that this change was more prevalent among women than men were, as the former felt empowered enough to be represented in every sector.
Researchers agree that gender roles and stereotypes in marketing are influenced in part by cultural beliefs and values (Abuhashesh et al., 2021; Slak Valek & Picherit-Duthler, 2020; Zayer et al., 2019). Abuhashesh et al. (2021) established that gender roles were a moderating factor in how consumers perceived Facebook ads following Hofstede’s cultural factors. Apparently, Abuhashesh et al., Eisend, and Zayer et al. agree that international marketers must consider cultural factors as important in influencing consumer perceptions and attitudes towards ads. As such, gender inequality in marketing will continue to manifest in different societies at varying degrees as the underlying culture changes.
In countries and societies where culture and traditions are prioritized, gender roles will be eminent in advertising, as consumer perceptions do not shift. For example, women and men in a UAE study agreed that females should be the main characters in household products ads (Slak Valek & Picherit-Duthler, 2020). Such beliefs prevent changes in the adverting and marketing sector towards gender roles in household selling. According to Windels et al. (2021), media culture also influences gender stereotypes. Crewe and Wang (2018) agree with this statement, noting that workplace culture in media agencies is less supportive of working women, reflecting their beliefs and values. Overall, the underlying factor when studying shifts in consumer attitudes and perceptions is cultural values and beliefs held in communities, workplaces, and nations.
Institutionalization of Stereotypes in Marketing
In addition to cultural values, the institutionalization of gender roles prevents equality in marketing. The problem begins in the work culture of advertising firms (Crewe & Wang, 2018). These authors explored gender inequality in the advertising industry, revealing its institutionalization, which permeates through formal employment structures, organizational cultures, and advertisement creation itself (Crewe & Wang, 2018). By studying the culture of the people influencing and creating ads, researchers reveal the most pertinent cause of inequality (Zayer et al., 2019). Similarly, Zayer et al. (2019) studied the various actors and structures that are institutionalizing gender roles in advertising. The researchers argue that media and advertising institutions are leading in the construction and maintenance of feminine and masculine myths, reinforcing gender roles. If the top leaders in the marketing sector have not made progress in closing the gender equality gap, they cannot advise their clients on how to avoid gender stereotypes and roles when creating commercials and campaigns.
Closing the Inequality Gap
Since gender roles in marketing are influenced by cultural factors and institutionalization, they are expected to change as these aspects of society shift. Globalization has started a change movement towards better and more equitable societies. Nevertheless, the question about closing the gender gap in advertising will continue to linger. Aramendia-Muneta et al. (2019) reported gender-neutral advertising from their analyses of digital videos extracted from Facebook. This finding indicates that globalization is forcing companies to create and release neutral commercials for the international audience, in line with research on cultural factors (Abuhashesh et al., 2021; Slak Valek & Picherit-Duthler, 2020; Zayer et al., 2019). However, researchers agree that women’s roles are changing, but men hold the same positions in marketing (Eisend, 2019; Kitsa & Mudra, 2019; Zayer et al., 2019). For example, men have not been featured as central characters in household products ads.
Women have maintained their traditional roles but evolved into roles that were predominantly associated with men. According to Mensa and Bittner (2020), women are now portrayed as authority figures and professionals, depicting autonomy, confidence, and independence. They are also featured in modern activities as central characters, including traveling, sporting, socializing with friends and colleagues, and other independent away from home roles (Mensa & Bittner, 2020). Windels et al. (2021) make a very salient claim on gender inequality in marketing that there are next-generation postfeminist statements pointing to future equality. The elements of the next generation ads include deferring change, sports empowerment, internalization, the culture of confidence, individualization, and turning away from structural inequalities (Windels et al., 2021). The preceding claim follows the progress narrative, which assumes that women will reach gender equality through consistent development. However, there is a need to confront the existing institutional and structural factors that prevent gender equality in marketing.
Conclusion
The existing literature points to the existence of inequality in gender roles in advertising. It reveals a skewed movement towards equality where women are now adopting some roles traditionally dominated by men, such as in professional settings, automobiles, and banking ads. Differences noted in the studies result from areas such as countries, industries, and communities where research was conducted. For example, automobile ads have significantly more men playing central roles than non-automobile ads. In addition, research conducted in more westernized nations has achieved higher equality levels than those holding on to traditions.
While the literature depicts gender roles in marketing accurately, there are gaps that future research could fill. Almost all the studies, except one, focused on the evolution of women’s roles in marketing while mentioning male roles slightly. This weakness leads to skewed female results that may not accurately depict changes in the industry. The second flaw is in assessing the efforts put into place to breach the gap in gender roles and eliminate stereotypes in marketing. Therefore, areas for future research:
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Must include investigation of gender roles in egalitarian countries.
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Should factor in ethnicity, age, and race factors.
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Must use representative samples.
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May focus on gender equality among key decision-makers in the marketing sector.
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Seek to reveal systemic gender roles and stereotypes.
References
Abuhashesh, M. Y., Alshurideh, M. T., & Sumadi, M. (2021). The effect of culture on customers’ attitudes toward Facebook advertising: The moderating role of gender. Review of International Business and Strategy, 31(3), 416-437. Web.
Aramendia-Muneta, M. E., Olarte-Pascual, C., & Hatzithomas, L. (2020). Gender stereotypes in original digital video advertising. Journal of Gender Studies, 29(4), 403-419. Web.
Crewe, L., & Wang, A. (2018). Gender inequalities in the City of London advertising industry. Environment and planning A: Economy and Space, 50(3), 671-688. Web.
Eisend, M. (2019). Gender roles. Journal of Advertising, 48(1), 72-80. Web.
Kitsa, M., & Mudra, I. (2020). Gender stereotypes of women in television advertising in Ukraine. Feminist Media Studies, 20(3), 381-397. Web.
Mensa, M., & Bittner, V. (2020). Portraits of women: Mexican and Chilean stereotypes in digital advertising. Communication & Society, 33(1), 63-78. Web.
Sandhu, N. (2019). Fueling gender stereotypes: A content analysis of automobile advertisements. Business Perspectives and Research, 7(2), 163-178. Web.
Slak Valek, N., & Picherit-Duthler, G. (2021). Pushing for gender equality in advertising: Gender role stereotypes in the United Arab Emirates. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 33(5), 512-525. Web.
Windels, K., Champlin, S., & Makady, H. (2021). Deferring gender equality until the next generation: Evidence of the persistence of postfeminist discourse in advertising. Feminist Media Studies, 1-18. Web.
Zawisza, M., Luyt, R., Zawadzka, A. M., & Buczny, J. (2018a). Cross-cultural sexism and the effectiveness of gender (non) traditional advertising: A comparison of purchase intentions in Poland, South Africa, and the United Kingdom. Sex Roles, 79(11), 738-751. Web.
Zawisza, M., Luyt, R., Zawadzka, A. M., & Buczny, J. (2018b). Does it pay to break male gender stereotypes in advertising? A comparison of advertisement effectiveness between the United Kingdom, Poland and South Africa. Journal of Gender Studies, 27(4), 464-480. Web.
Zayer, L. T., McGrath, M. A., & Castro-González, P. (2019). Men and masculinities in a changing world: (De) legitimizing gender ideals in advertising. European Journal of Marketing, 54(1), 238-260. Web.
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